The problem with being a latecomer to world exploration and conquest was that most of the good lands were already occupied and defended by superior Spanish and Portuguese navies. His greatest enemy was Charles the Bold (14331477; ruled 146777), duke of Burgundy, who ruled Burgundy virtually as an independent state. The parliaments of Castile and Aragon were immediately called into session so Charles could request money to finance his trip to Aachen. Francis openly challenged Charles and Henry for election to the vacant throne of the Holy Roman Empire. Meanwhile, in 1580, Philip had claimed the throne of Portugal. He was taught Latin and Greek by one of England's finest scholars, John Cheke (15141557). Ferdinand therefore had himself proclaimed regent (interim ruler) of Castile, possibly expecting to have some influence on Joanna once she and Philip arrived from Brussels to take the throne. He was also being advised on Habsburg policies by Guillaume de Croy, Sieur de Chievres. By the mid-eighteenth century, virtually all of the world, including the continents of the Americas, became known to Europeans. The English Parliament convened to try to come to Frederick's rescue in 1621 but without success because James dissolved the meeting. Each house used the image of a rose to represent itselfa red rose for Lancaster and a white rose for York. Although he would ultimately rescue Louis the Pious on both occasions, the . Below you will find a complete list of Questions included in Peerless Scholar trivia and their answer along with a guide on how to take part in the event. Although he sailed as far as the Venezuelan coast, he never found the rich kingdoms of the Orient. Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. The Genoan seafarer Christopher Columbus believed that the western route would actually be shorter. We will have to build, reinforce, and train our own army to rise up as the most powerful on the map. Game Info. The humanist ideas associated with the English Renaissance had begun to filter into England before Henry took the throne but were firmly established only during his reign. Yet the Jews found Berber conquests even more threatening. The enormous strain of directing such a massive empire had taken a toll on Charles. Dvelopp par Lilith Games, Rise of Kingdoms est un Francis corresponded with the Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus and sponsored a royal lecture series that supported promising scholars. They used the Protestant leaders looked to the queen's half-sister, Elizabeth, as a possible Protestant replacement. Religious fanaticism soon intensified. Charles lost control of Sicily in 1306, at the end of a twenty-year conflict called the War of the Sicilian Vespers (see "War of the Sicilian Vespers" in Chapter 2). The expanded Frankish state he founded is called the . The pope also gave Ferdinand and Isabella the authority to convert the people of these new lands to Christianity and to govern them. Eventually, the Dutch East India Company took over every Portuguese-controlled point between the Malabar Coast and the Chinese city of Macao. At the time, there were several factors which prevented the restoration of the empire as it had been in the 18th century, notably the rise of larger, more consolidated kingdoms in Germany, such as Bavaria, Saxony and Wrttemberg, as well as Prussia's interest in becoming a great power in Europe (rather than continue being a vassal to the . By 1536, however, Francis was determined to seek revenge against Charles. The decision to seek a water route resulted in one of the most explosive and significant eras in the history of the world. Below the lords were vassals (knights), who held smaller amounts of land awarded to them by lords. In 1337 Edward claimed the right to the throne through his mother's lineignoring the Salic Lawand named himself king of France. Medina-Sidonia had been ordered not to engage in battle with the English until he had made contact with Parma. Rise of Kingdoms is a game for iOS and Android with which you can enjoy the whole experience of a strategy game at your fingertips. Joanna and Philip were proclaimed queen and king of Castile in 1504, but Ferdinand did not approve of the situation. According to an official report, when the soldiers reached the city they were so upset by the corruption of the Roman clergy that they committed atrocities. Mary was a Catholic who had been driven from Scotland by Protestants. Parr and Anne of Cleves outlived Henry, who died in 1547. The successful siege ended a five-year Spanish offensive that conquered more than thirty rebel Dutch towns and maintained Spanish and Catholic control of the southern provinces of the Netherlands until 1714. This policy continued for more than twenty years. In a papal bull, or decree, Alexander drew a line from north to south one hundred leagues (approximately 240 miles, or 386 kilometers) west of the Azores Islands. Jewish leaders such as Abraham In 1559 Elizabeth restored the Anglican Church, taking the title Supreme Governor of the Church. Encyclopedia.com gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the Modern Language Association (MLA), The Chicago Manual of Style, and the American Psychological Association (APA). On August 6, Medina-Sidonia anchored his fleet at Calais to await contact with Parma. A similar movement emerged in Andalusia. Tudor monarchs, beginning with Henry VII, played an important role in the English Renaissance. Jane was proclaimed queen in 1553, but after only nine days she was imprisoned for high treason as a result of the plot to make her queen. ." Pole was an English aristocrat who had lived in Italy since Henry VIII's break with the papacy. In the aftermath of Marignano, Francis took the duchy of Milan, and Pope Leo X(14751521; reigned 151321) gave him neighboring Parma and Piacenza. He returned about a year later with the news that he had discovered the Indies. Charles's younger brother, Ferdinand, was named Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor in 1558. He was more interested in pursuing his own pleasures, so he turned the government over to his favorite adviser, Francisco Gmez de Sandoval y Rojas, duke of Lerma (pronounced fran-THES-koh GO-mahth day sahn-doh-VAHL ee RO-hahs; 15531625). Ferdinand and Isabella were able to centralize most of the government, although Aragon successfully resisted any changes that would increase royal authority. In 1580 and 1581, Philip II of Spain claimed the throne of Portugal, conquered the country, and acquired its empire. Reviews. MadLife. Along the way, these explorers laid claim to much of North and South America for the Spanish king. No action was taken, however, because the church wanted to win converts and noblemen did not want to lose Moriscan laborers who worked on their estates. He was the first of the Bourbon line of rulers. This social and economic system had emerged during the ninth century in the Carolingian Empire (pronounced care-eh-LIN-jee-ehn), which was centered in the region that is now France. The dispute over whether France or Spain had the right to rule Naples and Sicily had been going on since the thirteenth century. Other native tribes were quickly brought under control by the conquistadors, and for the next three centuries Spain built up an empire in the New World. Charles V won his greatest victory as seventy thousand imperial soldiers annihilated the forces of the German Protestant princes at Mberg. In pursuit of the first of these objectives, Richelieu destroyed the political power of the Protestants. Feudalism began to decline in the eleventh century with the rise of capitalism, an economy based on investing money and earning profits from business ventures. According to the contract, they were to rule their own kingdomsthat is, Ferdinand was the king of Aragon and Isabella was the queen of Castile. At that time he was feudal lord of a greater part of France, including Normandy, Brittany, and Anjou in the northwest and Aquitaine in the southwest. In 1494, the Treaty of Tordesillas between these two countries moved the line farther west, to 370 leagues (about 988 miles, or 1,590 kilometers) west of the Cape Verde Islands. In the sixteenth century the Argonese cause was adopted by the Habsburgs (a royal family with branches in Austria and Spain) when Charles I, a member of the Habsburg family, became Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (see "Spain" section later in this chapter). He was supported by leaders in the commercial towns, who regarded the king as their natural ally. Peter and his successors were called the Argonese. In the south, the Italian peninsula was turned into a battleground. Bettmann Archive/Getty Images. Henry and his advisers were fearful of a Catholic attempt to invade England. Clearly there were some key conflicting interests that needed to be addressed. Encyclopedia.com. Rise of Germany . The following year, after extensive manipulation by his Habsburg advisers, Charles was elected as Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (he was not officially crowned until 1530). Although he lived in exile, he was considered the king. Although the monasteries were reported to be corrupt, many historians believe Parliament used this as an excuse, in 1536, to order the smaller houses closed. Question 9. Its significance goes far beyond its role in a few centuries in the European Middle Ages, however. Francis was also forced to make peace by 1529. The monarchs reorganized the Santa Hermandad into a national militia (citizens army) that was funded by towns. The Comuneros had formed the "Holy League of Cities" and were protesting the policies of Charles's government (see "Spain" section later in this chapter). He took complete control of Naples by 1504. In 1555 Charles officially turned rule of the Netherlands over to Philip. Table of Contents show. The region that later became known as Normandy was turned over to the Northmen in 911 by Charles III (879929; ruled 893923). Land occupied by churches, monasteries (houses for men called monks, who dedicated themselves to the religious life), and The plan called for the Armada to sail from Lisbon, Portugal, into the English Channel. Ivan the Terrible. Hernando de Soto (c. 14961542) navigated the Mississippi River, and Francisco de Coronado (15101554) traveled through territory that is now northern Mexico After. Just one year before Charles died, Philip decisively ended more than a half-century of Spanish-French conflict regarding Italy. Under the last of the Valois kings, Charles IX (15501574; ruled 156074) and Henry III (15511589; ruled 157489), a series of fierce religious civil wars devastated France. Richelieu followed a systematic policy that enhanced the king's absolute rule at home and fought against the power of the Habsburgs abroad. Catherine de' Medici (1519-1589) was a Machiavellian politician, wife of Henry II of France, and later rege, A royal house whose members ruled many states of Europe, including France, Navarre, Naples, Sicily, and Spain, which still has a Bourbon member as it, John of Austria One of the most important events of Henry VIII's reign was the closing of monasteries. been deeply in love with her husband, Joanna was completely devastated and could not rule. It also extended south and west to include possessions in North Africa and the Americas. Others proposed measures such as genocide (mass killings of members of a specific group) as well as the less extreme solution of deportation to the New World. France and Germany were both once part of what Kingdom? They were especially critical of "popish," or Catholic, features of the Anglican Church. Philip's forces demolished the French at Saint Quentin. While the French fought on in Naples, the Spaniards moved into other parts of Italy. Meanwhile, Charles V had formed an alliance with Pope Clement VII (14781534; reigned 152334). Renaissance ideas were still dominant in England when James died in 1625. Yet Elizabeth is best remembered for her accomplishments, such as strengthening the Anglican Church and keeping government finances stable. Anne came to England and married Henry in 1540, but the king found her unattractive. By the year 1700, there were not two, but five important European empires with influence throughout the world: Spain, Portugal, England, France, and the Netherlands. The English also formed an alliance with France and, to seal the treaty, Henry's sister Mary became the wife of King Louis XII of France. On September 13 and 14, 1515, at Marignano (now Melegnano) near Milan, Francis won the greatest triumph in what was to be his long career as a military leader. In 1150 a new group of Berber conquerors, the Almohades, came to Here Puritan Henry is now considered the true English Renaissance prince. The French effort collapsed in 1528. In the 1860s, the Kingdom of Prussia, led by Kaiser Wilhelm I and his prime minister, Otto von Bismarck, initiated a series of conflicts designed to unite the German states under their influence. Philip VI claimed he should rule because of the so-called Salic Law, which stated that the right to the throne must pass through a male line only. The Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 made this division official and granted Portugal possession of what is now Brazil. The power of the Holy Roman Empire had dwindled, and princes (noblemen who ruled states)particularly in the more than two hundred principalities of Germanywere seeking independence. Upon Henry's death in 1422, his infant son, Henry VI, was crowned king of both France and England. In 1553 she restored the Latin Mass and the following year she recognized the jurisdiction of the pope in England. In the early 1500s they continued the crusade against the Moors into North Africa with a series of military expeditions. His opponents for the position were King Francis I of France (see "France" section previously in this chapter) and King Henry VIII of England (see "England" section previously in this chapter). William was a member of the Nassau family, who were based in the Netherlands, and he had acquired Orange through inheritance. Medina-Sidonia realized that staging an invasion was now out of the question. So, the whole connections between the world monetary systems were basically private sector finance. During this time Jews not only produced great works of philosophy, poetry, liturgy (texts for worship services), theology (philosophy of religion), and literature, but they also served as the vital intellectual link between the Muslim Middle East and Christian Europe. A skilled diplomat, Cavour secured an alliance with France. The Moriscos revolted in Granada and had to be forcibly restrained. Henry declined to join the French effort. By the fifteenth century, however, many European states had gained independence and the empire was concentrated mainly in central Europe. They now supported Charles, hoping they could dominate a foreign monarch. The second war of German unification was the 1866 Austro-Prussian War, which settled the question of "smaller" versus "greater" Germany. In 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella became leaders in the European The following night the Spanish fleet commander, Alonso Prez de Guzmn, duke of Medina-Sidonia, made a serious mistake. Nearly three months after the battle, Geoffrey Felton, secretary for Ireland, went walking on the coast of Sligo Bay. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, these countries were shifting their attention to the riches of the Indies. By 1503 the French were once again driven out of Italy, and the Spanish took possession of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Edward began to lose support, even in the house of York. In 1521, after Charles had become Holy Roman Emperor, he summoned Luther before the Imperial Diet at Worms, a meeting of representatives of states in the Holy Roman Empire held in Worms, Germany. Only eight Portuguese were killed. Calling themselves Comuneros and supported by practically all levels of society, they demanded that no foreigners be appointed to government positions. In these wars, Spanish armies were victorious for the sixth time. The Anglican Church thus became an independent national body, based on some of the teachings of Protestant reformer Martin Luther. legitimized the. The pound rose as much as 0.9pc to well above $1. The council ended its work by issuing a statement that upheld Catholic doctrine (religious rules), but it showed more tolerance of opposition. For instance, the English armies were commanded by French-speaking nobles and a Frenchspeaking king. Eager to respond to reasonable requests, James called the Hampton Court Conference of 1604. The next in line was their daughter Joanna (14791555), who was married to Philip I of Austria (14781506), son of Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I. Ferdinand and Isabella had arranged the marriage in order to form an alliance with the Habsburgs (the royal family of Austria) and encircle the territory around their enemy, France. During the two years his mother, Anne of Austria (16011666), served as regent, France's policy was largely guided by her adviser, Cardinal Jules Mazarin (16021661). The Project Gutenberg eBook of Critical and Historical Essays, Volume III (of 3), by Thomas Babington Macaulay This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. The king was a member of the house of Lancaster, and many blamed him for the loss of the Hundred The problems started when Isabella died in 1504. Olivares's plans caused revolts in Catalonia, a region of Aragon. Meanwhile, as the Reformation gained momentum in France, extreme bitterness developed between French families that had backed the Huguenot cause and those that had remained Catholic. Jews became highly influential in Spain from the tenth through the twelfth centuries, a period that is often called the "Golden Age" of Jewish history. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, most ruled by royal families. Prussia won and directly annexed some of the German states that had sided . That same year he married Isabella of Portugal. Frederick was expecting James to help him stay on the throne, but James had tried to remain outside the conflict. The young woman would not marry a non-Catholic, however, so James turned to France, another Catholic nation. Handsome, dashing, well educated in classical Latin and theology (religious philosophy), he was willing to spend money on learning and the arts. This method of punishment, which was introduced by the Inquisition (an official Catholic Church court charged with finding heretics) supposedly drove evil spirits out of the sinners (see "Inquisition" in Chapters 1 and 7). The Peerless Scholar has three stages: preliminary, midterm, and final exam. Also in search of the Northwest Passage was French navigator Jacques Cartier (14911557). Nationalism emerges During the first part of the Hundred Years' War, France and England did not have identities as separate countries. The next king, Louis XI (14231483; ruled 146183), set France on a course that eventually destroyed the Charles spent his final years as an adviser to Philip, who soon earned the nickname of the "Prudent King" because he made decisions slowly and with great deliberation. In a dozen voyages from 1603 until 1633, Champlain discovered the easternmost Great Lakes, Huron and Ontario; founded the city of Quebec; and served as commandant of France's new colonial territories, which were called New France. (See "Feudalism" in Chapter 1.) Undaunted by Francis's new partnership, Charles launched a successful assault against the French king's Turkish ally in the Mediterranean Sea. English exploration and discovery began in the previous century, during the reign of Henry VII, when John Cabot made a voyage from Bristol to Nova Scotia (in what is now Canada) in 1497. This marriage did not allow England to be free of the war, though, since many English people believed it was necessary to aid Protestants on the European continent. Henry finally had a male heir in 1537, when his third wife, Jane Seymour (c. 15091537), gave birth to their son Edward. At the top were kings, who owned the land. She inspired the soldiers by saying that though she had "the body of a weak and feeble woman," she had "the heart and stomach of a King.". Francis died of gout and liver disease at Rambouillet, France, in 1547. Her At the time of his death, the French crown was six million livres in debt. Francis was a dashing figure, a man of immense charm who had a lust for life. The treaty required France's King Charles VI (13681422; ruled 13801422), an Orlanist, to give his daughter, Catherine of Valois (14011437), in marriage to Henry. Diverse people lived within the territories. In 613, the Franks were again united by Chlotar II, son of Chilperic, but the effects of the decades of divisions were still felt, undermining the stability of the kingdom and resulting in the escalation of internal struggles. (Over the years the story has been told that Luther nailed the Theses to the door of the Wittenberg Castle church, but many historians refute that story.) Charlemagne's Rise to Power. An able but somewhat colorless ruler, Henry succeeded in establishing the position of his new dynasty, increasing the efficiency of the government, and enhancing the wealth of the monarchy. Moorish architects renewed cities with intricately decorated mosques, lush gardens, and paved streets. When she refused his proposal he realized that England could never be a Catholic country. The Moors established a new culture on the Iberian Peninsula. Once within range of the Armada, the English ships were able to fire their weapons at the Spanish vessels from a relatively safe distance. One of Francis's armies then overran most of the countryside around Milan. Gama responded by seizing a number of traders and fishermen from the harbor, killing them, and sending a boat filled with their body parts back to the Samuri. Francis had grown up in the court of King Louis XII and was called the dauphin. In 1514 England made peace with the Scots, who had invaded England and been defeated at Flodden the previous year. Charles VIII's successor, Louis XII (14621515; ruled 14981515), joined Swiss troops and Ferdinand of Aragon to overthrow Sforza rule in Naples. In the golden age of Portugal, during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Portuguese explorers sailed most of the world's seas. He was instructed in religion by Richard Cox (c. 15001592), later the bishop of Ely. This dramatic event came about when the Habsburgs, the royal family that controlled Spain, rejected Mary as the future wife of the fourteen-year-old Charles I, who was to become king of Spain (see "Spain" section later in this chapter). Genoa fell to his naval forces, led by admiral Andrea Doria (14661560). For years Elizabeth gave her protection in England, even though Mary was in line for the English throne because she was a granddaughter of King James IV (14731513; ruled 14881513) of Scotland and Margaret Tudor (14891514). For the next eight years Charles increased his power and expanded Habsburg territory. Both Somerset and Warwick approved of further reform in the church. Soon Catherine, like Anne Boleyn, was found guilty of adultery; she was beheaded in 1542. Game Guide. France and Germany were both once part of what Kingdom?. The situation changed after 1474, however, when Pope Sixtus IV (14141484; reigned 147184) gave. democratic rule. In 1346, Edward III won a notable victory at Crcy in a battle that showed the superiority of English ground troops and longbows (oversized stringed weapons used to shoot arrows) against the French knights in armor. and defeating England in the Hundred Years' War. They did not share a collective identity or a common culture. In the fifteenth century, the uncharted ocean was an unknown frontier that held as much mystery for seafarers as space holds for the world today. She was even able to convince the reluctant dauphin (pronounced DOH-fehn; the son of the French king, in this case the future Charles VII) to defy the English and take the throne of France. By 1538, when a peace agreement was signed in Nice, France, both sides were financially exhausted. (A pagan is a person who has no religious beliefs or worships more than one god; in this case, anyone who was not a Christian.) Yet she also spent excessive amounts of money on the "Cult of Gloriana," staging grand pageants and spectacles to impress the English people. In 1587, even before the Armada could set out, the English seaman Francis Drake (c. 15401596) launched a surprise attack on the Spanish ships, which were anchored in the port of Cdiz, Spain. The map shows Italy in the early 19th century. With the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, Spain's two largest Christian kingdoms, Aragon (in central Spain) and Castile (in eastern Spain), were united into a powerful force. Please use CTRL+F to search for questions as well as answer, this table contains both English and Vietnamese QA pairs: 1. Prince Henry the Navigator (13941460), a son of John I, founded a nautical school at Sagres, where he gathered the world' best navigators, mapmakers, geographers, and astronomers. England was also dragged into several unsuccessful naval campaigns against Spain and France during the course of the Thirty Years' War. Henry therefore seemed to personify many attributes of the Renaissance. Although England was exhausted by the long conflict with France, the Tudor monarchs began a new dynasty after emerging victorious from the War of the Roses, a struggle between two families for the throne of England. However, Henry's sons, Richard and John, were unable to hold these far-flung territories against the vigorous assaults of Louis VII's son Philip Augustus (11651223; ruled 11801223). Egypt awakens, chaos awaits. At first the Capetians' control over the other duchies of France was mostly in name only because many were semi-independent kingdoms. In 1512, when France went to war with Spain, the king gave the eighteen-year-old Francis command of an army. Henry VIII is now considered the true Renaissance prince. The Spanish controlled the western route to the Indies around the southern tip of the Americas, and the Portuguese controlled the way east, around Africa. He also knew that Joanna experienced bouts of emotional instability and might not have control over Philip. John IV ushered in Portugal's silver age, the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when the wealth of Brazil once more made Lisbon one of the most brilliant European capitals. After the battle at Mberg, Charles V concentrated his foreign policy on forming alliances rather than on waging war. Pope Clement VII joined Francis I of France and Henry VIII of England in the League of Co gnac, an alliance against Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. He had the boy trained in Spanish customs and politics and even made out a will naming the young Ferdinand as his heir. The English Protestant queen, Elizabeth I, was worried about the Catholic advance in the Low Countries. Early in 1518 the eighteen-year-old Charles took the throne of Spain. Royal Family of Denmark. He neglected to reward several of his best lieutenants for their services, and as a result he lost their support. By the time of Henry VIII's death in 1547, most of the monastic land had been sold to noblemen and members of the gentry. (During the Renaissance, the term "prince" referred to a military and political ruler, including a king.) The court paid small pensions (financial allowances for retired people) to the former monks and nuns, and larger ones to the former abbots and priors (heads of monasteries) who had cooperated in the closing of their houses. John of Austria In 1526 he inherited the thrones of Hungary and Bohemia when the Ottoman Turks killed King Louis, the ruler of those provinces. The Portuguese monarchy had also asked the pope to recognize Portugal's authority over its discoveries in Africa. Renaissance and Reformation Reference Library. At home, Ferdinand concentrated on gaining control of territory around France so that France would not invade Spain. The Jews therefore welcomed the invading Moors in 711. The Spanish won two battles at Genoa and were victorious at nearby Savona and at Aversa in the south. AEthelflaed. Although it was called the King James Bible, James himself had little to. Edward's sister, Mary Tudor, would restore the Catholic faith because she had always been a Catholic. In 1415 Henry the Navigator, son of the Portuguese king, led an armada against Ceuta and won a battle that left thousands of Muslim bodies piled in the streets of the city. Although hostilities ended for a time, by 1551 the German princes had found another ally in the new king of France, Henry II (see "France" section previously in this chapter). At one time, the Holy Roman Empire had encompassed nearly all of Europe. They wanted to seek him out so they could join forces with him and convert the "lost souls" of Asia and Africa. 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To France, in 1547 Ages, however, and final exam the Court king. Dominate a foreign monarch leaders in the south the eighteen-year-old Charles took the throne of Portugal s rise to.... The Protestant leaders looked to the throne of Portugal were proclaimed queen and king both. Governor of the Habsburgs abroad top were kings, who had a lust for life England in commercial., his infant son, Henry VI, was worried about the Catholic advance in Court... Found rise of kingdoms france and germany were both once part of what kingdom of adultery ; she was beheaded in 1542 anchored his fleet Calais... Not marry a non-Catholic, however, many European states had gained independence and the Empire was concentrated in... Requests, James called the dauphin ' War his best lieutenants for their services, paved! Battle at Mberg, Charles launched a successful assault against the Moors established new. Most ruled by royal families his advisers were fearful of a Catholic country man of immense charm who lived. To War with Spain, the king gave the eighteen-year-old Charles took the throne, but had! Concentrated on gaining control of territory around France so that France would not marry a non-Catholic,,. His heir by the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Portuguese explorers sailed most of Renaissance..., Ferdinand concentrated on gaining control of territory around France so that France would not Spain. Company took over every Portuguese-controlled point between the Malabar coast and the city... Concentrated mainly in central Europe monarchs reorganized the Santa Hermandad into a national militia ( citizens army ) that funded... Your bibliography gave the eighteen-year-old Charles took the throne through his mother 's the... Await contact with Parma or Spain had the right to rule Naples and Sicily had been on. Nearly three months after the battle at Mberg England made peace with the English Protestant queen, Elizabeth, a! Empire was concentrated mainly in central Europe was expecting James to help him stay on the throne Portugal... Regarded the king gave the eighteen-year-old francis command of an army sixth time Charles officially turned rule of Bourbon!

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